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Research Methods
Margaret MacDonald
Overview ^
This essay gives a brief overview of the Whistler Paintings Project and research methods underlying our online catalogue raisonné.
The Whistler Painting Project ^
This is intended as a comprehensive, fully illustrated and annotated catalogue raisonné of the paintings of James McNeill Whistler (1834-1903). It is based on known and documented works and written or published records. It is freely available to all and will not be published in book form.
This is a 'Beta' (preliminary) launch of the catalogue raisonné, which will enable free access to research to date. We will extend, correct and update the catalogue entries as required.
It has been developed from the catalogue raisonné published by Andrew McLaren Young, Margaret F. MacDonald, Robin Spencer and Hamish Miles, The Paintings of James McNeill Whistler, Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1980, as well as earlier catalogues, including a typescript by Whistler’s great-nephew, Joseph Revillon, in the Whistler collection, University of Glasgow. The numbering used in the 1980 catalogue has been retained, with an ‘a’ or ‘b’ added to distinguish additional paintings.
All works recorded in Whistler's lifetime are included, whether located or not. Changing titles, gaps in ownership, and other problems (all discussed in the catalogue entries) prevent the secure identification of all works. Some works were listed in the 1980 catalogue as 'Whereabouts unknown'; where these have now been identified, the title is followed by the word 'duplicate' above a link to the actual painting. Further research may confirm the identification of more exhibited paintings. Thus Whistler's total oeuvre is probably less than the over 600 paintings and 1700 works on paper recorded in this catalogue.
Where there is some doubt about the attribution of a work, this is discussed in the catalogue. Works recorded in the 1980 catalogue, but now considered to be by other artists, are included under the heading ‘Formerly attributed to J. McN. Whistler’, and the reasons for re-attribution are discussed.
Authenticating A Painting ^
'There are those also, sombre of mien, and wise in the wisdom of books, who frequent museums … collecting – comparing – compiling – classifying – contradicting.' (Mr Whistler's "Ten O'Clock", 1885).
Visual assessment of a painting includes an assessment of the brushwork, technique, colour, medium and support, and signature. These elements are compared with other works, particularly those in two major collections of Whistler's art: The Hunterian, University of Glasgow (the recipients of Whistler's estate), and the Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. Where possible technical surveys of the paintings have been carried out, in collaboration with conservators in the Tate, London, the Fogg Art Museum, Harvard, the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, as well as in Glasgow and Washington. This research included the analysis of paint samples, X-rays, ultra-violet and other methods of photography, and this has proved enormously valuable.
Historical records and reviews help to confirm or lead research, depending on how strong is the evidence they provide. Primary documents include Whistler's own correspondence, exhibition catalogues and reviews, personal records, and the records of art dealers, auction houses, collectors and collections.
The research and connoisseurship of many scholars, collectors and writers has formed the background and basis for our research and decisions. We are in a position to provide an informed opinion on the authenticity of works. Where doubts have been raised, or continue to be raised, these are discussed in the catalogue entries. The catalogue entries are based on information and research available at this time. Further research, particularly technical studies, may well transform the current state of connoisseurship.
Dating a Work by Whistler. ^
'Experts these – for whom a date is an accomplishment …' (Mr Whistler's "Ten O'Clock", 1885).
Whistler rarely dated his work. The Thames in Ice [y036], illustrated above, is one exception: it was exhibited in 1862 as 'The Twenty-fifth of December, 1860, on the Thames'. Even when Whistler added a date, it did not necessarily reflect the date when the painting was started or completed, but only showed that it was worked on in that year. For instance, La Princesse du pays de la porcelaine [y050] is signed and dated 'Whistler 1864', but work on it was probably started in 1863 and ended in 1865. A work exhibited as Green and Opal: The Village in 1884 was dated 1884 in the 1980 catalogue, but research shows that although it was exhibited in 1884, it dates from 1862/1865 and was reworked and retitled by Whistler in 1895: it is now catalogued as Blue and Silver: The Devonshire Cottages [y266].
Whistler’s own records are sparse, and he kept no overall record of his oeuvre. Dating is based on many factors: technique, style, signature, subject, related works, provenance, documentary evidence, exhibition history, and other contemporary records.
There are a number of documentary sources, including Whistler’s own letters, that provide detailed information on the creation and history of paintings. For instance, Whistler sent drawings and descriptions of pictures including, on 16 August 1865) Symphony in White, No. 3 [y061] in his letters to Henri Fantin-Latour. The online publication of Whistler's extensive correspondence has provided a hugely important resource for dating works. 1
The letters and diaries of others, including sitters and spectators, provide valuable information. For example, two artists, Louise Jopling and Walter R. Sickert, recorded Whistler painting her portrait (Sickert dated a sitting 22 July 1877, and Jopling, 17 February 1878). Only one portrait survives, Harmony in Flesh Colour and Black: Portrait of Mrs Louise Jopling [y191], and it is not clear in which of these two years it was painted.
Occasionally a historical event provides a date. The Morning after the Revolution, Valparaiso [y075] may have been started on 1 April 1866, after the Spanish fleet had bombarded the Chilean town. Over twenty years later, A Red Note: Fête on the Sands, Ostend [y366] may have been painted at Ostend in Belgium in the summer of 1887, during international celebrations of Queen Victoria's Jubilee.
The identification of a site also helps in dating a picture. Whistler's travels are well documented and give an indication, to within a month or so, of many works. For instance, Whistler went on a painting trip to St Ives, Cornwall, from January to March 1884, and many paintings, such as The Angry Sea [y282] can be securely dated to that trip. Similarly, views of Venice would have been drawn or painted between September 1879 and November of the following year.
Whistler’s signature changed radically during his lifetime. Early drawings were signed 'JAW' or 'JW'. Paintings were occasionally signed with his name 'Whistler' or 'J Whistler' until 1869, and thereafter, often (but not always) signed with a butterfly monogram developed from his initials ‘JW’. This took on a life of its own, with added antennae and sometimes a stinging tail.
However, the signature is not a totally secure method of dating, and sometimes butterflies were added years after the work was otherwise finished, when a painting was to be exhibited or sold. In 1895 Whistler refused point-blank to sign Arrangement in Grey: Portrait of the Painter [y122] again, explaining, 'Be good enough to say to Mr McCulloch with my compliments that the picture is signed - as completely as one of his own cheques is signed when he has written his name upon it.' 2
Whistler's style and technique varied considerably over his career, from the thickly painted and impasted works of around 1860 to the thin washes of the 1870s, the expressive brushwork of the 1880s, and the occasionally highly finished portraits of the 1890s. Some works were painted over a long period, or returned to and reworked many years after they were started: obviously Whistler's technique had evolved during the interim, making precise evaluation of dates and methods difficult.
TITLES
Variant titles are recorded, and in each case the source of the title is given. Priorities are as follows:
- Whistler's title is given wherever possible.
- The first exhibited title, or title otherwise published during Whistler's lifetime.
- The titles used in Whistler's retrospective exhibition at Goupil's in 1892 form the definitive titles for many works, as well as the preferred format of titles in this catalogue raisonné.
- Where titles were originally published in another language (often French), this title has been retained where possible, and a translation provided when needed.
- Whistler's own letters, lists, sale invoices and receipts, provide titles, sometimes with minor variations.
- If, after Whistler's death, a painting has become known and published under a suitable title, this has been accepted.
- Where no published title exists, a descriptive title is used.
Some titles have a generic grouping (i.e. Nocturne [y171]), others are more general (An Orange Note: Sweet Shop [y264]), and some specific (Harmony in Pink and Grey: Portrait of Lady Meux [y229]). As a general rule, 'Arrangements' and 'Harmonies' were figures, 'Nocturnes' were sea, river or city-scapes, 'Notes' and 'Variations' were small colour-themed subjects, and 'Symphonies' sometimes involved larger figure compositions or seascapes.
There were exceptions: Whistler was not consistent in his use of titles. A seascape shown in 1872 as 'Symphony in grey and green - the Ocean', was described by the artist as both 'Harmony in Grey Valparaiso' in 1878 and 'Arrangement in Grey & Green - The Pacific' about 1881, and returned more or less to its original title when exhibited at Goupil's in 1892!
Some paintings have become known by more than one title, and there may be a real conflict between two or more equally viable titles, the painting having been published and exhibited under radically different titles.
Colour changes in the actual works, and in the artist’s perception of the works, create problems. For example, the famous Nocturne: Blue and Gold - Old Battersea Bridge [y140] was also described as 'Nocturne in blue and silver' and 'Nocturne en bleu et or'. There are an awful lot of 'Nocturnes in blue and silver', 'blue and gold', 'grey and gold', 'black and gold' and similar permutations. Furthermore, the problem of identifying a work that has only a colour title ('Yellow and Grey' or 'Note in Green and Violet') is often insoluble.
Some titles are site specific: some Cornish subjects had St Ives in the title but some did not. Some portraits bear the name of the model and others do not: the magnificent painting exhibited in 1874 as 'Portrait, "Symphony in Flesh Colour and Pink" ' was a portrait of Mrs Frances Leyland, although she was not named in the title at that time. On the other hand, Harmony in Flesh-Colour and Pink - Mrs. H. B. Meux was shown by that comprehensive title at the Grosvenor Gallery in 1882. Several titles include a colour or item of dress rather than recording the model. Rose et or: La Tulipe, for instance, is a portrait of Whistler's sister-in-law Ethel Birnie Philip in a fashionable dress associated with the shape and colours of the flower.
When Whistler’s original titles and early published titles are not known, then later published titles or short descriptive titles have been created. To avoid confusion, wherever possible the 1980 catalogue title has been retained.
DESCRIPTION
A brief description of each painting is given, both to clarify the images and to point out aspects of the scene that may not be immediately obvious. For example, in Caprice in Purple and Gold: The Golden Screen, the screen was tentatively identified by the owner, C. L. Freer, as of the Tosa School, and the prints scattered around the model (Joanna Hiffernan) included Hiroshige’s 1855 colour woodcut Saijo, Iyo Province from Views of Famous Places in the 60-odd Provinces. Similarly, in Symphony in White, No. 2: The Little White Girl [y052], the fan or hand-screen held by Hiffernan was decorated with a woodcut by Hiroshige, The Banks of the Sumida River from the set of Famous Places in the Eastern Capital, dating from 1857
MODELS AND SITTERS
Individuals are identified briefly: Mère Gérard, for instance (seen above), was a flower seller and artist's model, but her full name and dates are not known. By contrast, The Jade Necklace [y478] is a portrait of Rosalind Birnie Philip (1873-1958), Whistler's sister-in-law and executrix, the generous donor of the major collection of his work to the University of Glasgow.
Occasionally it has not been possible to identify a sitter, or there is considerable doubt about the identity of a model, and in these cases the clues and confusions arising are discussed as fully as possible.
In addition, significant figures (i.e. models, artists, patrons, collectors) are linked to biographies containing additional information. These biographies are intended to cover links between Whistler, his family, fellow-artists, and collectors. They are not necessarily comprehensive biographies, since the viewer can easily consult such resources as the National Dictionary of Biography, and Encyclopaedia Britannica on-line.
The sources of information on the hundreds of people mentioned in the catalogue include census records, official records of birth, marriages and deaths, genealogical websites and publications, post office directories, memoirs, biographies, correspondence, and information provided by the descendants of owners and sitters.
SITES
Whistler's paintings were often carried out on site, though sometimes completed and touched up in the studio. Whistler sometimes gave the site of an painting in the title or other documentary sources. Early cataloguers and biographers also suggested sites, sometimes from information given by the artist. Sites are identified wherever possible and full references to sources are given. Contemporary postal directories, guidebooks, maps and photographs were used to help in identifying buildings and views. The tower of San Giorgio Maggiore in Nocturne in Blue and Silver: The Lagoon,Venice and Nocturne - San Giorgio [m0803] is easily identifiable, and many more Venetian sites have been identified by research after weeks of very pleasant research in that lovely city. 3
Many sites, particularly in London, have changed radically, though a surprising number in cities such as Venice remain virtually unchanged. Some paintings were done on the same site as etchings or lithographs (just as some portraits were carried out in several media) as can be seen in the painting Wapping [y035] and etching Rotherhithe [70], reproduced above. These are discussed and reproduced in the catalogue.In addition we have reproduced, where possible, old photographs of sites, including subjects painted by Whistler that are missing: this may help to identify them one day,
COMMENTS
Discussion, speculation and comments from published sources are quoted or summarised briefly, when they materially affect the understanding of the work of art in its art historical context. For instance, the influence of Asian art and that of Diego Rodriguez de Silva y Velázquez in relation to a work such as Symphony in White, No. 2: The Little White Girl [y052] is to be found in this section. It is not the intention of the authors to speculate but to provide a basis for further research, ideas and argument.
TECHNIQUE
COMPOSITION
This section includes a survey of works by other artists that may have influenced the composition of a painting, such as a photograph owned by Whistler himself, showing a detail from Las Meninas by Diego Rodríguez de Silva y Velázquez, which was a major influence on his compositions; he had never seen the original, though he probably had seen copies of it in Britain.
Related drawings and paintings by Whistler are also discussed and illustrated, and changes in the composition, known through archival photographs or pentimenti, are described.
TECHNIQUE
'What I meant, in my letter, about "scumbling", was that I had never been guilty in any of my work of such meretricious method - and that the atmospheric tone under the arches in the Westminster Bridge picture is due to nothing of the kind - and that therefore there is no fear of glaze or scumble disappearing in the cleaning.' 4
Whistler had been taught and followed European academic traditions. He often bought canvases or wooden panels commercially prepared with an imprimatura (a thin layer of paint). He or the supplier then sometimes added a thin undercoat, often mid-grey, but could vary considerably in colour, which would often form part of the colour scheme of a painting.
There is evidence that he sometimes, but not always, sketched the composition roughly with crayon, charcoal, or graphite pencil. He painted the subject over these preparatory layers, sometimes when the earlier layers had dried, and sometimes painting 'wet in wet'. Although he might paint a landscape in a couple of hours, a Nocturne, famously, in 'two days', Whistler became notorious for his lengthy working processes, rubbing and scraping down portraits and 'nocturnes' to bare canvas at times, and using the scraping and rubbing as part of his technique. Using Whistler's correspondence, diaries of sitters, and memoirs, we have told as full a story as is possible, at this time, of Whistler's painting practices, particularly in regard to portraiture.
Where we have been able to study paintings out of their frame and glazing, in well-lit laboratory-type conditions, a great deal of information on Whistler's technique has been acquired. Recent technological and visual analysis of significant works has been conducted with the help of conservators, particularly Dr Joyce Townsend at the Tate. As a result there are some extended discussions of style and technique, but this is an area where much research remains to be done. Further research on the canvases themselves, the paint, medium, and techniques employed, would be very valuable.
CONSERVATION AND CONDITION
'Take the pictures to Mr. Richards - you know where his place is - He is the only man fit to clean my paintings - and you can tell him so from me - … He works not only well but quickly.' 5
The records of conservation, as well as the current condition of the painting, are based on contemporary letters and documents, as well as museum and collection records and visual analysis, wherever possible. It is often not permitted to publish detailed information on recent conservation treatment, and in any case it is highly technical: this is an area that could be explored further, but not in the context of this catalogue.
FRAMES
'My frame maker is Mr Grau. 570. Fulham Road ... He is the only one who has the true pattern of my frame - Tell him that the gold must be the pale yellow soft gold like the gilding of my Mother's frame' (Whistler to E. G. Kennedy, 13 June 1892). 6
This section includes records of the history of frames during Whistler's lifetime, where known, including Whistler's correspondence on the subject of his frames.
The description, analysis and history of many frames, as well as an essay on the subject, has been written by Dr Sarah Parkerson Day. 7 Terms have been developed for the description of frames. A glossary of terms is also provided.
History
PROVENANCE
'The great point is not the changing of ownership of these pictures - which is scarcely interesting to me - but to confirm, by every transaction, my large prices.' (Whistler to D. C. Thomson, 29 March 1892) 8
The history of ownership of a work is given in the form of a dated list. An unbroken record of ownership is shown by separating owners by a semi-colon. Gaps in ownership, whether brief or long, or where the record is uncertain, are indicated by a full stop. This is followed by a fuller, annotated, historical account, including any questions of dating and ownership.
The provenance has been established from labels, art dealers' records, sale and exhibition catalogues, documents including Whistler's correspondence, and published books and articles, to provide as full a record of ownership of individual works as possible.
EXHIBITIONS
'It cannot be that you really mean to withold [sic] pictures of mine from the recognition that the occasion of exhibition offers them, for the mere accidental reason that you happen to possess them.' (Whistler to H. S. Theobald, 25 April 1888). 9
Exhibitions held during Whistler's lifetime, as well as the principal memorial exhibitions after his death, are included, with the catalogue numbers and titles wherever known.
Sources of information include the extant catalogues, press cuttings, documents and published records, online bibliographical archives and public collection websites. Major collections of such material are held in Special Collections, Glasgow University Library; Freer Gallery of Art and other Smithsonian Museum libraries; the E. R. and J. Pennell Collection in the Library of Congress; the National Art Library, Victoria and Albert Museum; the Frick Art Reference Library, and many others. Catalogues have been used to track the provenance and the history of a particular work in the art market of the time. Later catalogues have been included if they contain essential information and analysis, particularly with information provided by public collections. It is understood that these later catalogues reflect changing tastes, and the particular knowledge and opinions of individual writers. Inevitably, taking advantage of current on-line collection catalogues, some exhibition and bibliographical data is more comprehensive for paintings in some major collections than for others.
Whistler's one-man exhibitions are recorded fully, including his first one-man show, at the Pall Mall Gallery in 1874, the Dowdeswell shows of 1884 and 1886, and his retrospective exhibition, Nocturnes, Marines and Chevalet Pieces, at Boussod, Valadon et Cie, Goupil Gallery, London, 1892.
The principal Memorial Exhibitions held after Whistler's death are listed, particularly those held in Boston (Copley Society) in 1904, and in London (the International Society of Painters, Sculptors and Gravers) and Paris (Palais de l'Ecole des Beaux-Arts) in 1905, as well as in Rotterdam in 1906.
Whistler exhibited his work in a number of smaller clubs and larger societies, from select or one-off shows such as The Artists' and Amateur's Conversazione, Willis's Rooms, London, 1863, to the exhibitions of the Society of British Artists (particularly during Whistler's presidency) to the major venues of the International Society of Sculptors, Painters and Gravers, and of the Royal Academy of Arts. Abroad Whistler showed with Les XX in Brussels, the Société des artistes français in Paris, and many other groups.
Also covered are art dealers' exhibitions during Whistler's lifetime, particularly those of such dealers as Deschamps, Messrs Dowdeswell, the Fine Art Society and Goupil Galleries in London, Durand Ruel and Georges Petit in Paris, and H. Wunderlich & Co. in New York.
Major public and international exhibitions include the Salon des Refusés, Palais des Champs-Elysées, Paris, 1863, the London International Exhibition of 1872, the third Internationale Kunst-Ausstellung, Königlicher Glaspalast, Munich, 1888, the World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893, and many others. A number of important exhibitions dating from after Whistler's death are included in the Paintings catalogue raisonné.
Only life-time exhibitions and shows dating from after 1995 are currently being added to the catalogue of works on paper.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Bibliography starts with the catalogues raisonnés of Whistler's work. These are followed by printed material (works authored by Whistler, exhibition, collection and sale catalogues, newspaper and journal references) published during Whistler's lifetime. Monographs, books on Whistler and general books, catalogues, newspapers and journals, websites, and unpublished material, dating from after his death in 1903, are also listed.
The literature is intended to be selective, because the sheer scale of literature for works such as Arrangement in Grey and Black: Portrait of the Painter's Mother (Musée d'Orsay, Paris) and Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket (Detroit Institute of Fine Arts) is totally overwhelming.
Many press cuttings are found in the albums of cuttings in the Whistler Collection, Special Collections, Glasgow University Library. These were digitised for easy searching during our research project (this resource is not publicly available). Extensive bibliographical resources are now freely searchable online, including the early biographies by E. R. and J. Pennell; and many newsapers including the London Times as well as many more obscure newspapers and journals are also available online. We have connsulted many informative PhD and Masters theses including two unpublished theses that give a useful survey of press coverage. 10
CORRESPONDENCE.
Whistler's estate was bequeathed to his sister-in-law, Rosalind Birnie Philip, and a major collection of his work, library and correspondence was given in 1935 and bequeathed in 1958 by her to the University of Glasgow (see the website of the university).
Whistler's correspondence is a major resource, available online:
The Correspondence of James McNeill Whistler, 1855-1903, edited by Margaret F. MacDonald, Patricia de Montfort and Nigel Thorp; including The Correspondence of Anna McNeill Whistler, 1855-1880, edited by Georgia Toutziari. On-line edition, University of Glasgow, 2003-2004, at www.whistler.arts.gla.ac.uk/correspondence.
The Bibliography continues to be revised and extended.
Notes:
1: The Correspondence of James McNeill Whistler, 1855-1903, edited by Margaret F. MacDonald, Patricia de Montfort and Nigel Thorp; including The Correspondence of Anna McNeill Whistler, 1855-1880, edited by Georgia Toutziari. Online edition, University of Glasgow, 2003-2004, website at http://www.whistler.arts.gla.ac.uk/correspondence.
2: Whistler to D. C. Thomson, [11 July 1895], GUW #08305.
3: Grieve 2000 [more] Grieve, Alastair, Whistler's Venice, New Haven and London, 2000 ; MacDonald 2001 [more] MacDonald, Margaret F., Palaces in the Night: Whistler in Venice, Aldershot and California, 2001 .
4: Whistler to Stephen Richards, [28 June 1892], GUW #10715.
5: Whistler to E. G. Kennedy, 13 [June] 1892, GUW #09685.
6: Whistler to E. G. Kennedy, 13 [June] 1892, GUW #09685.
7: See also Parkerson 2007 [more] Parkerson, Sarah Lawrence, Variations in Gold: The Stylistic Development of the Picture Frames used by James McNeill Whistlers, PhD thesis, University of Glasgow, 2007 .
8: Whistler to D. C. Thomson, [29 March 1892], GUW #08355.
9: Whistler to H. S. Theobald, 25 April 1888, GUW #09668.
10: L. Bell 1987 [more] Bell, Lynne, Fact and Fiction: James McNeill Whistler's Critical Reputation in England, 1880-1892, PhD thesis, University of East Anglia, Norwich, 1987 ; Goebel 1988 [more] Goebel, Catherine Carter, Arrangement in Black and White: the Making of a Whistler Legend, PhD thesis, 2 vols, Evanston, Northwestern University, 1988 . An important bibliographical resource, apart from the catalogue raisonnés themselves, is: Getscher 1986 [more] Getscher, Robert H., and Paul G. Marks, James McNeill Whistler and John Singer Sargent. Two Annotated Bibliographies, New York and London, 1986 .
Last updated: 3rd November 2020 by Margaret
